The development of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (ESCA, XPS) is reviewed from an historical perspective that is relevant to its use for analytical chemistry. The emphasis is on early development of the technique, primarily during the period, 1964–1977. During these years there were significant developments in instrumentation, accompanied by significant advances in understanding the fundamentals of the technique. First, a historical perspective is presented to establish the backdrop against which XPS was developed. The early work in the field dealt mainly with measuring and understanding chemical shifts for elements and particularly for organic compounds. This was an exciting time because XPS appeared to provide chemical information unavailable otherwise. A detailed summary of some of the early work on chemical shifts is presented. It was also established that XPS could be used for quantitative analysis of elements, compounds, and different oxidation states of the same element. As the development of XPS occurred, emphasis changed from measuring chemical shifts to developing XPS as a surface analytical tool, a role that it fills today. Early applications to the analysis of catalysts and polymers, use to study adsorption and surface reactions, application of XPS to electrochemistry and corrosion, and studies of atmospheric particulates are all reviewed.
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